In our modern, industrialised societies, nature is often viewed as something external—a resource to be managed, extracted, and sometimes preserved, but always separate from human systems. This anthropocentric worldview has driven much of the environmental destruction we face today, from deforestation to biodiversity loss and climate change. But permaculture offers a fundamentally different perspective, one that is rooted in an eco-centric ontology. It challenges us to rethink our place in the world, not as rulers of nature, but as integral parts of a larger, interconnected web of life.

Permaculture’s ontology is dual-faceted: it is both a tangible system (permaculture design) and as an intangible construct (social framework of the permaculture movement). It exists both as a blueprint for practical application and as a vehicle for fostering relationships and collective well-being.

In contrast, permaculture does not have a shared cosmology, in large part because permaculture design is an amalgam of ideas from diverse scientific and cultural sources. Its diverse practitioners also derive from places and cultures across the world, each with their own local cosmological traditions.

“Cosmology, in this model of culture, includes our ethics and values, our cultural Story and/or Myths, and our belief systems: our beliefs about who we are, what we are, what our place in the universe is, whether and what kind of God or god(s) exist, and so on. It also includes what we consider to be valid ways of knowing, whether these be scientism, mysticism, rationality, intuition, etc. All of these are the filters of our perception, the conscious and unconscious basis of our choices, the foundation of our reality, the sum total of our experience and thought. Our cosmology defines how things are, and how they should be, who we are, and who we should be. Our cosmology can be blinding and limiting, or it can be liberating. And only we can change it” (Jacke 1999).

Permaculture’s ontological foundations shape how its practitioners view their relationship with the earth and with each other. By drawing on Indigenous knowledge systems and emphasising the interconnectedness of all living things, permaculture offers a vision of human life that is deeply embedded within natural systems. This perspective informs not only how practitioners approach permaculture design, but also how they understand their ethical responsibilities toward the Earth and future generations.

In Part III of this series, I identified eco-centrism and biomimicry as key teleological aspects of permaculture practice, which speaks to its ontological commitment to the recognition that humans are not separate from nature. This stands in direct contrast to the dominant worldview, which positions humans as outside and above the natural world, tasked with controlling and managing it. In permaculture, humans are seen as part of nature, with a role to play in maintaining and regenerating ecosystems rather than depleting them.

“And so – but I’m still feeling the country.  I’m still feeling the landscape.  I’m still going over bridges and knowing that there’s watercourses going through those areas and I’m still looking and I’m seeing what’s the patterns of the landscape that is still informing me of what’s the condition of the country in there and what indicators, what state is it in and start to even think about what levels of leverage could be placed in there for the regeneration to come forward further in the areas that nature is still evolving.  So, yeah, that’s an interesting kind of tack on things, but I feel it’s important for us to have that sense of place in the world.  And if people don’t have that sense of place, that’s disconnection.  And so I’d like to see more ways on people feeling comfortable with feeling okay to be in place and in working in partnership, where possible, to have greater senses of how to walk better in the in country and to feel the protection of the people there and, again, us doing it together” (Interviewee #18).

This ontological shift—from seeing ourselves as separate from nature to recognising our place within it—has profound implications for how we live and how we design our systems. Rather than imposing our will on the land, permaculture encourages us to observe and work with natural processes, allowing ecosystems to guide our actions. This approach fosters a sense of humility and respect for the complexity of natural systems, emphasising that we must design with nature, not against it.

This interconnectedness extends beyond ecosystems to include social systems as well. In permaculture, human communities are seen as part of the larger ecological fabric. The health of our communities is tied to the health of the ecosystems that sustain them. This holistic view encourages permaculture practitioners to design systems that support both ecological and social well-being, recognising that the two are inseparable.

Described as a self-organising, grassroots, and network-based movement. This represents permaculture, in its practice and its social organisation, as being inherently decentralised, rhizomic and emergent. It exists not as a monolithic entity but as a constellation of practices, communities, and principles that evolve dynamically.

The ontological foundations of permaculture represent a profound shift in thinking—one that challenges the dominant narratives of progress, growth, and human superiority over nature. By embracing an eco-centric worldview, permaculture offers an alternative to the extractive, exploitative systems that have led to the current ecological crisis.

“Permaculture in its essence is revolutionary.  It’s taking the stand against the dominant world paradigm that embraces capitalism, masculine hierarchal structures.  I think by its essence, it’s a strong political statement to contradict all of that and I think there’s ways that you can be more graceful about permaculture when you’re operating in certain political contexts, especially with governments, to present it in such a way that is non-threatening, but perhaps, that’s a bit subversive because I think ultimately, we’re trying to shift from the current paradigm into something that’s new into the next culture, the next planetary era, and – yeah, that’s what I think” (Interviewee #25).

This paradigm shift is not just theoretical; it has practical implications for how we design our systems, how we live our lives, and how we organise our societies. In permaculture, the goal is not to control ecosystems but to collaborate with them in the understanding that we are part of them, creating systems that are resilient, regenerative, and in harmony with the natural world.

Permaculture is described as a “parallel alternative” and a system integrating ethics with design principles for resilience and sustainability. This represents permaculture as an alternative reality or paradigm to dominant systems. It defines permaculture’s being as a deliberate counter-system, one that embodies sustainability and ethical grounding as its essence.

“Yeah, a parallel alternative.  In the case of permaculture, parallel alternative, and as a movement, I think they’re the qualities of the movement that describe it sufficiently without having to worry too much” (Interviewee #1).

“People who are very passionate about creating change, people who’ve come from often a background of seeing that there’s a lot of things that need changing.  But maybe myself, I came from an activist angry background and I connected with permaculture because I saw that it was a positive way of making the change rather than fighting against the system, which I saw as being unfit for sustainable living.  And I think a lot of people come from that understanding that permaculture is culturally strengthening, is environmentally a way of moving forward, and to connect our food systems and living systems” (Interviewee #23).

The Earth care, people Care, and fair share ethics underpin permaculture’s design principles and methodology and define the foundational principles of permaculture as intrinsic to its existence. It asserts that permaculture’s ontology is inherently ethical, suggesting that any action or system labelled as permaculture must align with these principles. This awareness come across clearly in the interviewee testimony.

Permaculture’s cosmology is deeply influenced by Indigenous knowledge systems, which have long recognised the interconnectedness of all life. Many Indigenous cultures view the earth as a living entity, deserving of respect and care, and see human beings as stewards rather than exploiters of the natural world. This cosmology aligns closely with the ethical principles of permaculture, which emphasise Earth Care, People Care, and Fair Share.

“From my perspectives of indigenous communities, their relationships to land and waterways and animals and so on is so, so much deeper than us white fellas, that there is almost such a wide disconnect that I don’t even realise.  I can’t fathom how I could connect on that level.  So we’re already so far apart in our understanding of connection to Earth and connection to land.  I’m not really sure, but the permaculture principles that we’ve developed in our little white Western ways certainly put over and observe indig mob interacting with their lands and see permaculture concepts come out, absolutely” (Interviewee #17).

This cosmological perspective challenges the reductionist thinking that has dominated Western science and philosophy for centuries. Rather than viewing the world as a collection of isolated parts that can be controlled and manipulated, permaculture adopts a systems-based approach that recognises the interdependence of all things. In this worldview, every element of an ecosystem—whether it be soil, water, plants, animals, or people—plays a crucial role in maintaining the health of the whole.

“To have that relationship to country is just so important.  And I really noticed that people feeling like they can’t have that relationship, or they’re used to it doesn’t even really maybe, and come and occur to them.  And maybe they haven’t had the ancestral lands that have been passed down for farms or generations over time.  But I have had a sense of, I know, my family’s been on my father’s side, on that, in that land area, and I can walk through the country and know that different family members and my aunties and uncles have had land that they’re caring for there.  And I have a, deep it was it’s a spiritual connection to that place because that place owns me” (Interviewee #18).

Permaculture’s ontology also encourages a long-term perspective. Whereas industrial systems often prioritise short-term gains at the expense of future generations, permaculture emphasises the importance of designing systems that can sustain life for the long term. This aligns with Indigenous teachings that emphasise the responsibility to care for the land not only for our benefit but for the benefit of future generations.

However, in borrowing from Indigenous knowledge systems, permaculture incorporates the parts that are understandable to outsiders without locating those practices within the broader cosmology of those knowledge systems. In a sense, permaculture has cobbled together an ontological commitment to ecocentrism nested within a larger cosmological void.

“There could be a few levels to this answer.  I’ll start with spiritual level.  I think there seem to be a trend, which is changing and isn’t a blanket trend, but a trend to not be engaged with a spiritual dimension of being alive and being life and being human, and to focus primarily and solely on food production, working the land, building soil, yeah, really practical action, and I think where that happens, it’s limited by being blanket just on that level.  So as I said, my work is in primarily in the social dimension, and I work a lot with Robin Clayfield who is the classic permaculture pioneer who brings in spirit care into the permaculture ethics and has asked David Holmgren if he’s comfortable with that, and he has been, but he won’t necessarily use it himself.  I think this level of connection and conversation inside of the permaculture movement isn’t recognised to the degree it needs to be, and I’m certainly not saying we need to create a permaculture church or create an organised religion around permaculture” (Interviewee #44).

“And so, in coming back to Australia, I’ve been doing a lot of personal reflection going through some massive internal changes, spiritual changes in myself, and also connecting with a lot more women in the permaculture movement, which I think has been – it wasn’t like, “Oh, I met a woman and suddenly it was opened up.”  I think it’s just this catalyst of meeting other women and seeing them in their full expression of the feminine.  And it’s almost like that gives permission to do that yourself and I’m definitely feeling that, and through that, my dance is coming back and I’m wanting – I’m noticing that this dance is such a core element of my spirit care and involving – and it’s what’s weaving my interest into this fourth ethic of permaculture is spirit care and it’s not for everybody” (Interviewee #14).

This is not to say that permaculture practitioners themselves don’t embody conscious cosmological commitments. However, in building its design methodology from a range of different scientific and cultural sources, it does not have its own consistent cosmological foundation. This could be a product of permaculture’s origins:

“This is a little interesting observation around what I’ve been looking into my little personal research of the spirit care and this separation of – no, it doesn’t belong in an academic structure and I’m not saying – I’m absolutely not in a position nor am I wanting to criticise Bill or David for not embracing feminine issues or anything like that, but it was interesting that that kind of framework is created by two men and a lot of the stuff that’s been put forward by women and it could’ve been put forward by men, but it has a feminine – what’s been put forward essentially has a much more feminine aspect of it or suggestion that that’s what’s been put down” (Interviewee #14).

A unique cosmological foundation for permaculture may yet develop over time. All culture is fluid, permaculture included. Some practitioners would argue that it is not the place of permaculture design to concern itself with the woo woo, while others are engaging directly with the spiritual dimensions of their permaculture practice.

I am reminded here of the late Dan Palmer and his work with Making Permaculture Stronger. I observed Dan progressively evolve away from the strict logical thought of his academic training in philosophy to incorporate more intuition-based spiritual perspectives in his permaculture thinking. I also observed sometimes nasty resistance to his evolution from some quarters of the permaculture fraternity, who were firmly entrenched in the logic of “design” in its more mechanical sense. Design-as-control (as an outcome of Western cosmology) versus design as creating conditions for systemic emergence (as an outcome of Indigenous cosmologies) remains a live division within the movement, which speaks to the absence of a unifying cosmology to underpin permaculture practice.

Permaculture’s ontological and cosmological foundations are deeply influenced by Indigenous knowledge systems, which have evolved over millennia through a deep relationship with the land. These knowledge systems are rooted in a profound understanding of ecological cycles, biodiversity, and the need for balance between human activity and the natural world.

“Because now we have scientific evidence which supports, let’s say, traditional wisdom and knowledge of ecological processes so we can do whatever we did before consciously” (Interviewee #4).

“Permaculture movement’s most important innovations – I’m critical about this because permaculture – it’s been said really beautiful here at the convergence – as an active remembering and that it’s only been in just a few short generations that we’ve lost so much wisdom that’s come forth and so, I think permaculture’s greatest innovation is the fact of remembering all of the beautiful practices that generations and generations and generations for hundreds or thousands of years, human beings have been living in harmony with the earth and sure, there have been problems.  So I think it’s a matter of taking the best of the past, the best of the present, especially with our present tools and technologies for the future (Interviewee #25).

By integrating Indigenous knowledge into its framework, permaculture honours the wisdom of cultures that have long lived in harmony with nature.

“It’s more to the degree of what I heard from the traditional owners on Stradbroke Island talking about recently that the ways of the original people is a relational economy.  Everything is relational and to them, it’s strange to have a national park that people can’t engage with, and get in there and look after, and harvest fibre, hunt animals and care for it as well and be in reciprocation, and I think the modern permies are still influenced by the systems that surround us and it’s a deep existential identity thing.  One of my phrases I like to use is that humans are ecology.  We are part of this landscape.  And I don’t think that’s a ground-breaking statement, but in its simplicity is there’s a definite power to it that when you really consider what that means, to me and there’s a whole world of thought that’s there that I can’t necessarily articulate that goes behind that, that’s a powerful statement to me.  Things like deep ecology I think are really powerful and important that I don’t see being openly embraced by the permaculture movement” (Interviewee #44).

“I think the only way to do it really is to make connections with the people who are still on the land that we live on and share this land.  I don’t know how that would happen but I don’t think you can do anything really meaningful to the indigenous people, unless you develop some kind of relationship with them and understand how they do things and then share across that – and open that connection between the two, so that the two can play together.  I don’t know how.  A story about the kindergarten recently where the teachers were in indigenous background and they just started connecting with local elders and brought their discussions in their life which had this gentle underpinning of their connection to their country and they’re learning about fire, which they learnt about other things about fire, then the learnt about sitting on a circle.  So it was kind of this two-way rather than that and we wanna pay respect, we wanna do the right thing and we wanna give you and we wanna do all this” (Interviewee #26).

This describes permaculture as a synthesis of knowledge systems. It is being is ontologically positioned as a bridge or interface that marries tradition and science, creating a holistic framework for interacting with the environment.

In many ways, permaculture can be seen as a modern expression of ancient wisdom, adapted to contemporary challenges. The movement’s emphasis on localism, community resilience, and ecological stewardship reflects the core principles of many Indigenous cultures. However, permaculture must also navigate the complexities of operating within a globalised, capitalist system that often prioritises profit over sustainability and equity.

However, the integration of Indigenous knowledge systems also requires a deep respect for the cultural and spiritual contexts from which this knowledge arises. The permaculture toolbox of design strategies includes knowledge that has been around for thousands of years in indigenous communities across the world, which is sometimes appropriated without attribution, consent and remuneration for the people and cultures from which that knowledge was acquired.

“There’s only one Aboriginal person here.  That’s a wasted opportunity since that’s the theme.  I wish that there are more – when the keynotes were chosen that we get some people to be here daily that relate to that keynote ‘cause now we’re all thinking about Aboriginal culture and because of Bruce Pascoe” (Interviewee #20).

“So then I did my Masters in Panama, I did a lot related to Indigenous issues and the idea of autonomy so with the Kuna people.  And I think they were doing permaculture practices and would probably challenge like the knowledge of permaculture in its form now.  There’s lots of ideas of culture appropriation but I mean I feel like having read bits and pieces about permaculture, I don’t think that was what the – when it started, it became a stronger movement.  It was the intention.  I think it was quite strong to say no, like these ideas exist amongst indigenous peoples in other groups” (Interviewee 21c).

As the permaculture movement continues to grow, it must be mindful of the risk of cultural appropriation, ensuring that Indigenous knowledge is honoured, rather than commodified or oversimplified. Jesse Watson (2016) calls on permaculture practitioners in settler countries to actively practice decolonising methodologies and be mindful of the past crimes of land dispossession of indigenous peoples.

“Not enough yet, but there are areas where it [Indigenous knowledge] has been acknowledged.  Having worked in Darwin and seen how permaculture – like how community gardens have come and gone in Northern Territory over the generations, and I think permaculture has a unique ability to connect with culture.  But I don’t think that’s been achieved.  So, there’s a lot of work to do in that area, but I think the tools are there.  And a lot of people have been doing permaculture projects in various areas and also acknowledging the – within the urban areas are beginning to acknowledge more the Indigenous systems.  But I also think that it’s only the last ten or 20 years that there has been a general acknowledgement that Aboriginals didn’t just manage the land with fire, but actually managed the heating systems in a form of natural agriculture rather than imposed agriculture, like just kind of managing their natural systems to enhance their food collections areas.  So I think as that happens more, hopefully the permaculture movement works hand-in-hand with that” (Interviewee #23).

As Guntra Aistara (2013) and Manish Jain (2002) have implored, it is important for permaculture practitioners to pay homage to existing ways of doing things in First Nations and peasant farming contexts and respect tried-and-tested village wisdom.

There are other practitioners who have been strong in their commitment to inclusivity and conscious homage to First Nations traditions, doing so from positions grounded in conscious cosmological traditions. Starhawk is the exemplar here, as a long-time eco-feminist, activist, writer and now permaculture elder, with a practice grounded in Wicca. Author and podcaster Gordon White brings his practice of ritual magick and shamanism into his permaculture practice. The now defunct OASES Graduate School in Melbourne, which I was involved with for a time and which emerged from an eco-spiritual faction of the Uniting Church, was also permaculture-adjacent and a repository for cosmologically-aware practice.

I argue that they and other fellow travellers from around the world at permaculture’s edge, present substantive representations of cosmology in permaculture’s underlying foundations.

While permaculture’s ontological perspectives offer a powerful framework for sustainability, they also present challenges. One of the key challenges concerns the process of transition, in the need for a cultural shift toward a more eco-centric worldview. In societies that have been conditioned to prioritise economic growth, consumption, and individualism, this shift can be difficult to achieve.

“Well, it’s inherently sticking it to the man in terms of removing the power that corporate interests or the big structures of our society have over us.  It takes our energy and redirects it into something much more positive.  So that’s not energy which is then feeding that environmentally and socially destructive status quo.  Instead that energy is going into forming something more beautiful and more resilient.  And so, at that level, I think that’s incredibly deeply political.  If we motivate people – if outreach and representation of that lifestyle is successful, then you’re inherently sucking the air out off the fire of capitalism.  You’re not giving it what it needs to survive and that is the labour, the consumption, and just the energy that it needs.  So, in that sense, I think it’s incredibly deeply political.  I mean it’s one of the most fundamental political acts you could do is withdraw” (Interviewee #16).

“I think the permaculture movement is influenced by the politics of the day and the politics of the day is neocapitalism, that’s heavy influenced by industrialisation and we’re humans, we’re working in a regenerative paradigm in that bigger casing of highly degenerative system, and that comes with a whole bunch of learned experience that it differs for different people, it comes with trauma, it comes with a sense of panic of what’s going on in the world” (Interviewee #44).

Another challenge is ensuring that permaculture remains inclusive and accessible. The movement’s reliance on specialised knowledge and training, such as the Permaculture Design Course (PDC), can create barriers for those who lack the time or resources to participate.

“I’m asking where’s the economic discussions that’s going to bring down the capitalism and put in place something else without pain?  I’m asking where are the people – talking about land distribution – where are the people who are dealing with parts of permaculture that are not as popular as the gardening, the house, and the local neighbourhood” (Interviewee #1)

If permaculture is to be a truly transformative force, it must find ways to be more inclusive and to share its knowledge with a broader audience. It is a cruel irony that access to learning about a post-capitalist lifeway, heavily inspired by millennia of practice in Indigenous knowledge systems, is so mediated by the ability of would-be participants to buy their way in.

These challenges also present opportunities for growth. There are examples of practitioners addressing this accessibility problem, such as Toad Dell and Guy Ritani with PermaQueer in Australia, and Pandora Thomas with the Black Permaculture Network in the United States. In a nod to valuing the edge, note that in both of these examples, they are led by practitioners who sit outside of the mainstream rump of the permaculture movement in their home countries.

Permaculture’s ontological foundations offer a new way of being in the world—one that is rooted in a deep respect for the earth and a recognition of our interconnectedness with all life. This also represents a return to an old way of being in the world. By embracing an eco-centric worldview and drawing on the wisdom of Indigenous knowledge systems, permaculture challenges us to rethink our role on this planet. It invites us to move away from the extractive, exploitative systems that have caused so much harm and toward systems that are regenerative, resilient, and in harmony with the natural world.

As the movement continues to grow, it will be important for permaculture practitioners to remain grounded in these ontological principles and become more conscious of the cosmological commitments that underpin the ideas permaculture has borrowed from elsewhere, while also being open to new ideas and approaches. By doing so, permaculture can continue to offer a powerful vision for how we can live in balance with the earth, ensuring a healthy and vibrant future for generations to come.

Does permaculture even need a unifying cosmology? The answer to that question may emerge over time as this still relatively young movement matures.

Aistara, G. A. (2013). Weeds or Wisdom? Permaculture in the Eye of the Beholder on Latvian Eco-Health Farms. In J. Lockyer & J. R. Veteto (Eds.), Environmental Anthropology Engaging Ecotopia: Bioregionalism, Permaculture, and Ecovillages (pp. 113-129). New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books.

Jacke, D. (1999). Ecological Culture Design: A Holistic View.

Jain, M. (2002). Re-discovering the co-creators within. Vimukt Shiksha. June 2002, 1-15.

Watson, J. (2016). Decolonizing Permaculture: Exploring the Intersection of Permaculture and Decolonization. Permaculture Design. 98, 33-37.